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DIVISIONAL CHAMPIONSHIP ENTRY: DIVISION 4, STUDIO ARTS: MISCELLANEOUS STUDIO ARTS CONTAINS POISONS! DOES NOT MEET ASTM STANDARDS! Paints From a variety of period manuals
1-4. This entry consists of a variety of period-type paints from various sources. The majority of receipts have come from European painter’s manuals of the 12th through 16th century, although some are as early as the 9th century and some as distant as Persia (see "Reference" section for primary sources consulted). These paints would be used primarily by illuminators; while many of the pigments are appropriate to fresco or oil or tempera painting, these are made specifically to meet the needs of book and document illuminators. 5. The materials in this project consist of: Pigments: ground minerals, that is, vermilion, cinnabar, malachite, lapis lazuli, azurite, orpiment. Clays: caput mortum Alchemical pigments: red lead, white lead, verdigris. Dye Pigments: Cochineal, onion skins, buckthorn berries on slaked plaster or other support. Shells or Pop Caps: Period paints were often stored in shells (example of such instructions, see Boucher, 2000); I had a very limited number of shells not already occupied by paints I’d made previously, and so began to substitute pop caps as a white, chemically inert, scavengable material that would make a single color palette with similar properties to the shells. Muller and Painters stone: grinding apparatus, used to mix and refine grinds in making the paints. Gum Arabic, honey, egg yolk: materials used to create the binders in the paints. Gum arabic is the glue, honey adds flexibility, and egg yolk, in small quantities, although a binder on its own in tempera painting, is here used because it increases the luster of red paints. Stirrers, pans, et cetera: used in the process of making the dye pigments and the paints. 6. Techniques. Dye Pigments: I gathered the buckthorn berries (buckthorn is a European native that has naturalized all though the upper half of North America and was used to make paints in period) when ripe, and collected onion skins from cooking. I purchased the cochineal bugs, then ground them up to make dye bath. Cochineal, while known and used in the 16th century, is a New World bug, and so would be more commonly purchased than foraged. All the dye baths were made in the same way: I boiled the dye matter to extract the color, added alum as a mordant, which both fixes the color and modifies the colors, and then added slaked plaster to the mix. The plaster, an inert white, then attracted the dye particles to make the base pigment. However, I wanted to compare the most usually mentioned methods of making dye pigments, that is, dyeing an inert white, dyeing a clothlet, and adding the remains of the evaporated dye bath to a binder. I did this with the cochineal. I observed several interesting things. First, I expected cochineal to produce the blue red I had gotten when dyeing with this procedure in the past, but this time, I got various shades of violet. I dyed a cloth, dyed slaked plaster, and allowed the dye dregs to reconstitute in gum arabic, making three different paints. The slaked plaster is, as far as I am concerned, the most interesting. Almost as soon as the dye was added to the plaster, the color was completely absorbed by the plaster, and the liquid remaining was quite clear. This was highly unusual and interesting. The other dye pigments I have made on plaster, sap green (buckthorn) and onion skin yellow, did not do this. There was plenty of dye particles remaining in the liquid after the plaster was dyed, in those cases. Furthermore, once the dyed plaster was added to the gum arabic, both the onion skin and the sap green paint had some particle drift; the gum absorbed some of the dye off of the plaster. This did not occur with the cochineal. There is no period receipt for making a paint yellow from onion skins; I tried it on a whim. Interestingly, the plaster that was dyed but not used to make paint quickly faded to a beige color. The yellow in the gum arabic remained yellow. There has not been any fading with the excess sap green or cochineal dyed plaster. Mineral, clay, alchemical pigments: These were all purchased pre-ground. In period, pigments could be purchased in this way from apothecaries, and several period manuals (for instance both books called Arte of Limning) mention that painters should be careful in making such purchase, as apothecaries tended to adulterate the pigments to increase their profits. Many times, these pigments needed further refinement, and this would be done in several ways. One might grind the pigment more, or one might levigate the pigment. I levigated the lapis lazuli, as this is the most typical method used to refine this mineral, and began to grind the vermilion. However, I became curious regarding the effect I’d noted in levigation the lapis (that is, that each successive levigation made a darker and darker blue), and wanted to try the same thing with the vermilion. So I finished refining the vermilion by levigation (that is, using water to separate out the particle sizes; heavier particles will sink to the bottom of the container, while lighter particles can be poured off). There is no period instruction for doing this, as vermilion is generally considered to be made better and better by more grinding. However, I noted that by using the levigation process on my vermilion, I could do something that is hard to do with most purchased pigments today—get several shades of paint out of the one sample of vermilion. I’m really happy I tried it—although, interestingly, the first levigation gives the best, brightest vermilion, whereas the last levigation gives the best, darkest blue. The azurite, like the lapis, I was forced to begin separating by levigation, because first, if one grinds it finely, it loses its color, and second, there is a large amount of mud-colored matter in the pigment. I’ve noted that the levigation with the lapis is giving different shades of blue, but the levigation of the azurite is working out as mud color or blue color. The remaining colors were lightly worked on the muller/stone combination primarily to begin the mixing process; most of them had been purchased sufficiently well ground to be made directly into paint. Mixing the paints: Most of the paints were mixed in the same way: the pigment was mixed with a bit of water on the muller/stone, then scraped into the palette and mixed with the binder. The binder had been previously made by heating water, melting gum arabic in the water, and adding honey to increase the flexibility of the binder. However, the vermilion was also ground with a bit of egg yolk (Gullick), and the verdigris had a bit of distilled vinegar added to the final paints (Strasberg Manuscript). The binder to pigment ratio was approximately 1:1. The clothlet cochineal and the dye dregs cochineal were just mixed and fiddled with until the paint performed appropriately. Once the paints were suitably mixed, I tested them by making a small paint line on paper, and then observing the line for signs of loss of adhesion, over-shine, and cracking. Those with too much pigment had more binder added; those with too little pigment had more added. General Comments:
Annotated References NOTE: I enjoyed researching in the following manuals. Several had extensive sections on the subject of pigments and making paints: Levey, Cennini, Theophilus. Some were quite devoted to the subject: Strasburg, De Arte Illuminandi, and Booke of Secrets. Most of them were pretty similar in their treatment of what we consider pigments, but they varied widely in the selection of colors based on dyes. The difference in the dye recipes seems based largely on the geography of the author, with the treaty written in Arabia using indigo for a blue dye, the manuscript written in Germany using cornflowers, and the manuscript written in the British Isle using woad. Modern works, such as D. Thompson, were quite helpful in sorting out the modern from the medieval, and better defining the places where modern chemistry has advanced our understanding of the practices of the medieval scribe.
PRIMARY SOURCES: Borradaile, Viola & Rosamund, translators. The Strasburg Manuscript: A Medieval Painter's Handbook. Alec Tiranti. An anonymous fifteenth century German manual on painting. English translation on one side of the page, original German on the other. Gullik, Michael, introduction. The Arte of Limming: A Reproduction of the 1573 Edition Newly Imprinted. Society of Scribes and Illuminators. A facsimile reprint of a small, sixteenth-century, English illuminator's manual. A quick and helpful read; a modern English transcription may be found at http://www.geocities.com/CollegePark/Library/2036/LIM1.HTM. Kinney, Arthur, transcriber. Nicholas Hilliard's Art of Limming: A New Edition of A Treatise Concerning the Arte of Limning. Northeastern U. Press. Don't be confused by the similar titles; this is definitely not the same as the above-reviewed Arte of Limming. Hilliard's manuscript wasn't written until about 1600, and is concerned not only with the materials of painting, but also with the technique of portraying an accurate likeness of a person. Lehmann-Haupt, H. The Goettingen Model Book. University of Missouri Press. Facsimile of book with translation into modern German and English of a small German instructional manual. This is the one that gives illustrated, step-by-step instruction for acanthus leaves and diaper patterns. There is a section of this book online at http://www.renstore.com/articles/GSS/lesson6-acanthus.shtml, a very nice reproduction. Levey, Martin. Medieval Arabic Bookmaking and Its Relation to Early Chemistry and Pharmacology. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. This book contains two Arabic manuals on bookmaking; the first, written about 1025 CE, concerning materials for writing, paining, and so forth, and the second, written about 1619 CE, primarily concerned with bookbinding: an absolute treasure if you are looking for information on materials used by the Arabic peoples prior to 1600. Merrifield, Mary. Original Treatises on the Arts of Painting. Dover. 2 volumes. A somewhat overwhelming compendium of period (and slightly post period) works on the practices of art; at least 10 different works are translated, with the original language and the English translation provided side-by-side. Several of the manuals were written specifically for illuminators. Norgate, Edward. Miniatura or the Art of Limning. Mid seventeenth century treatise on Limming, very similar to both Peacham and Hilliard. Peacham, Henry. Arte of Drawing with the Pen, and Limming in Water Colors, More Exactlie than Heretofore Taught. Early 17th century English instructional manual, so similar to Hilliard’s Arte of Limning that it could be considered plagiarism. Pliny the Elder. Natural History. Roman-era record of what was available as a pigment and some very interesting speculation on how the pigments were discovered and created. Medieval folk believed the writings of Pliny almost as much as they believed in the Church, so it's an interesting and relevant read. Singman, J. and D. Jennings. Some Fifteenth Century Recipes for Colors. In Tournaments Illuminated, Issue 112, Fall 1994. Society for Creative Anachronism, Inc: Milpitas, CA. Translation of a number of receipts and instructions related to painting and dyeing from MS Porkington 10, third quarter of the 15th century Smith, C.S and J. Hawthorne. Mappae Clavicula: A Little Key to the World of Medieval Techniques. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Translation of a 12th century copy of a ninth-century (possibly earlier) book of receipts regarding the practices of painters and other practical crafts. Translation and facsimile of original pages, for those who want to attempt their own translation of the medieval Latin. Some of the scribal receipts appear to have been written by people without understanding of paint making: some of the receipts are just unworkable. Theophilus. On Divers Arts. J.G Hawthorne & C.S. Smith, trans. Dover. Written about 1122, this is the first instructional manual written by a practicing artist. Interesting read, although only a small portion of it applies to illumination. Thompson, D.V, translator. The Craftsman's Handbook: "Il Libro dell' Arte" by Cennino d'Andrea Cennini. Dover. An excellent translation of one of the surviving books of instruction for artists from the fifteenth century. Little illumination instruction but lots of materials instruction. Thompson, D. V., translator. De Arte Illuminandi: The Technique of Manuscript Illumination. Yale U. Press. This is an anonymous fourteenth century instructional manual on the creation of materials for and techniques of manuscript illumination. It is an excellent resource. Thompson, Jack C. Manuscript Inks. Caber Press. A nice little three part book. Part 1 covers Mr. Thompson's experiments and studies regarding the making of inks; Part 2 is Mr. Thompson's transcription of a sixteenth-century treatise on the making of artist materials known as the Booke of Secrets; part 3 is a study of modern ink sticks by C. Lindblad. SECONDARY OR POST-PERIOD PRIMARY SOURCES Delamare, F. and B. Guineau. Colors: The Story of Dyes and Pigments. S. Hawkes, trans. Harry N. Abrhams, New York:2000. An excellent overview of ancient and period colorants. While it doesn’t go into the detail of use found in Thompson’s Materials and Techniques, it does provide an outstanding look at historical pigments that incorporates the research of the 20th century. Doerner, Max. The Materials of the Artist and Their Use in Painting. Harcourt Brace & Co. Beautiful reference book regarding materials currently in use, history of past materials, and some excellent direction on using and interpreting the writings of the old masters. Concentrates primarily on oil painting. Johnston, Edward. Writing & Illuminating & Lettering. Dover. Johnston is one of the Victorian masters responsible for the resurgence of interest in calligraphy and illumination, and this book is a classic in the field. While I take issue with some of Johnston's opinions regarding the works of the Middle Ages and how they were created, there is plenty of practical how-to information in this book. Laurie, A. P. The Painter's Methods and Materials. Dover. Research from the turn of the 19th-20th century that is still valid. Mayer, Ralph. The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques. Viking Press. Another excellent cyclopedia of modern materials and practices. A reference tool that is indispensable to anyone interested in the chemistry of their paints and the history of their techniques. Thompson, D. V. The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting. Dover. An excellent, accessible discussion of grounds, pigments, mediums, et cetera used by the medieval artists. Reading this should improve your ability to work with your materials, and certainly increase your understanding thereof. However, modern research has supplanted some of Thompson’s work, see the "Artist’s Pigment’s" series cited separately, below. National Gallery of Art. Artist’s Pigments: A Handbook of their History and Characteristics. 3 Volumes. Volume 1. Robert Feller, editor. National Gallery of Art: Washington, DC. 1986. Of the three currently in print, covers the least number of period pigments. Chapters on Indian yellow, Cobalt Yellow (Aureolin), Barium Sulfate, Cadmium yellows, oranges, and reds, Red Lead and Minium, Green Earth, Zinc White, Chrome Yellow and other Chromate pigments, Lead Antimonate Yellow; Carmine. Volume 2. Ashok Roy, Ed. Oxford U Press: New York, 1993. Azurite and Blue Verditer; Ultramarine Blue; Lead White; Lead-Tin Yellow; Smalt; Verdigris and Copper Resinate; Vermilion and Cinnabar; Malachite and Green verditer; Calcium Carbonate Whites. Volume 3. Elizabeth Fitzhugh, Ed. Oxford UP: New York, 1997. Egyptian Blue; Orpiment and Realgar; Indigo and Woad; Madder and Alizarin; Gamboge; Van Dyke Brown; Prussian Blue; Emerald Green and Scheele’s Green; Chromium Oxide Greens; Titanium Dioxide Whites. Chapters that discuss one or more period pigments are in bold, above. There is a 4th volume in the works, which also looks to cover a number of period pigments. These books concentrate more on works on panels and canvas rather than book art. The books are quite technical, and may seem overwhelming if you are not accustomed to academic writing, but if you stick with it, you’ll find a wealth of useful information on the history of the pigment’s use, the many names it’s been known by, color reproductions of works of art featuring the pigment in use, and a lot of detail on the pigment’s characteristics.
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